All students in grades nine through twelve participate in an integrated and sequenced science curriculum, taught in three- or four-week morning lesson blocks. Each year students have at least one block in physics, biology, and chemistry, and their studies include almost daily laboratory work. They also have a four-week block of earth sciences in ninth grade and a strong component of science in the yearly three-week interdisciplinary January Term. Students explore course content primarily through direct observation of phenomena and by performing experiments. From these active interactions they derive the lawfulness of the physical world. The anchor task, or demonstration of mastery, most often comes through the morning lesson book, where students record their class work and corresponding conclusions, including illustrations of principles, experiments, and apparatus. The blocks for each year are developmentally sequenced to correspond to and complement the unfolding capacities of each phase of adolescence. In general, science studies proceed from a more concrete and descriptive structure in ninth grade toward a more quantitative, theoretical, and abstract structure in the last two years of high school. Waldorf science education is purposefully designed to help the young person develop and address inner questions that arise in the context of the modern natural world. The ultimate goals are for students to gain conceptual mastery and also build a thoughtful and caring relationship to their world, thus becoming true citizens and stewards of the future.

Physics

Ninth Grade—Heat and Cold

An introduction to quantifying physical phenomena, this morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks. Differing temperature scales are introduced, and the conversion formulas are developed. The students’ qualitative ideas and observations lead to the idea of a quantity of heat, the calorie. This idea is quantified and made mathematical by experiments on the linear expansion of metal and the exchange of heat in a calorimeter. The calorimetry experiments lead to the identification of metals by measuring mass and volume (density), as well as the use of fairly complex mathematical calculations to evaluate the results of these experiments. Throughout the block, students solve problems on the expansion of water, metal, and concrete. They are required to take notes, observe demonstrations, conduct experiments, complete academic problems, present a morning lesson book, and take a final exam.

Tenth Grade—Mechanics

This morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks. The block begins with a discussion of means and standard deviations and continues with a biography of Galileo and his place in the ideas of science and experiment. The students quantify their observations on his inclined plane experiment by manipulating large amounts of data to obtain “best fit” curves for these data. They conduct further experiments with a pendulum and, again, manipulate their observational data to reveal the underlying mathematical harmony. The course concludes by comparing the ideas of Aristotle, Newton, and Einstein on “gravity.” The students are required to submit daily pages and a morning lesson book, and to take a final exam.

Eleventh Grade—Electricity and Magnetism

This morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks. The block begins with a recapitulation of the previous year’s mechanics block, where we observed the constant acceleration of a ball rolling down an inclined plane. We concluded that this could be viewed as a consequence of its immersion in an inverse-square field. Further experiments in electrostatics demonstrate that it is also an inverse-square field and thus similar to the much weaker gravitational field. We proceed to validate Ohm’s law by doing several DC experiments in series and parallel circuits in which we relate voltage and current. The relation of mathematics to physics, as expounded by Richard Feynman in his classic 1963 lecture, prompts our mid-block essay. Further, the inseparability of electrical and magnetic phenomena is demonstrated by a qualitative appreciation of Faraday’s 19^th century experiments. Lastly, Maxwell’s synthesis induces us into the current perception of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon. The class is required to take notes on discussions, perform experiments and write up the results, write an essay, take a final exam, and produce a morning lesson book.

Twelfth Grade—Optics

This morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks. It begins with observations of light reflecting off water and other media in nature. The history of ideas about light, from the Ancients through al-Hazen, Kepler, Newton, and Maxwell, is presented—with a thought to its elusive nature. The laws of reflection are developed empirically with plane and spherical mirrors, and a fish tank filled with water is used for the laws of refraction, including total internal reflection. Fermat’s principle of Least Time provides a “causal” relationship for these laws. Newton’s experiments with refraction through a prism are repeated with candle and laser. The block concludes with the refractive properties of a spherical vessel of water, using geometrical optics to illustrate how a rainbow may be produced by each individual raindrop. The students are required to turn in timely pages, to write up the experiments, to submit a morning lesson book, and to take a final exam.

Biology

Ninth Grade—Anatomy and Physiology

This morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks. Students study the human skeletal, muscular, and sense-nerve systems, focusing on accurate observations. They learn about the cause and effect relationships in the human body, bones, muscles, skin, senses, breathing, and circulatory systems, then undertake an exploration of the skin and sense organs, composition and function of blood, and heart and lungs. Laboratory experiences are geared toward observation and measurement, with emphasis on scientific methods of experimentation and presentation of results through formal lab reports.

Tenth Grade—Heredity and Development

This morning lesson block, which meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks, goes beyond ninth grade anatomy and physiology to explore the processes of growth, reproduction, and transmittance of traits from one generation to the next. Students are introduced to developmental biology through human embryology, and they continue their survey of human anatomy and physiology with an exploration of the endocrine system. They observe and study the basic structure of cells and the use of microscopes. Topics include: cell division, Mendelian genetics, and the chromosomal theory of inheritance.

Eleventh Grade—Botany

This morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for four weeks. It surveys the history of botany from Theophrastus and Linnaeus to the present. Goethe’s plant observations are introduced and discussed. Students study plant classification and learn about kingdoms and domains, then learn about the life cycle of the plant groups including mosses, vascular plants, seed plants, and flowers. The structure, function and fertilization process of the flower follows, along with observation and discussion of monocots and dicots. Plants are then studied in relation to structure and function in the leaf, stems, and root. Students learn about structures and function in plants that allow them to adapt to different environments. They are introduced to plant classification and use of the dichotomous key. Study then includes the ecological considerations of plants through exploration and observation of plant adaptations and communities. Field studies are an integral part of learning in the course. Course work includes weekly quizzes and a final exam. Students also present a research project at the end of the course in an area of interest related to botany. A main lesson book is due at the end of the course that includes drawings of plant structures, essays, observations, and laboratory work.

Twelfth Grade—Zoology and Evolution

The zoology morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for four weeks. It surveys the whole animal kingdom, beginning with the simplest animals, Phylum Porifera (sponges), and then moving to Phyla of Invertebrates: the Coelenterata (jellyfish and similar animals), Annelida (flat worms and round worms as simpler developmental forms of the segmented worms), Mollusca (snails, clams, and squid-like animals), Echinodermata (starfish), and Arthropods (crustaceans, spiders, insects, and others). A general developmental progression in complexity can be seen and followed in these different types of animals. The Vertebrates are studied including the five classes: Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia. The latter portion of the block is devoted to the historical development and ideas of evolution, including Darwin’s theories, modern theories, current issues, and the cross-fertilization in the fields of evolutionary and developmental biology.

Chemistry

Ninth Grade—Chemistry

This morning lesson block, which meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks, is the student’s introduction to the inner nature of substances of the living, including substances that have carbon. The class explores the ability of elements to change states, be transformed, and combine with other elements. Topics include: symbiotic relationship between the human being and the plant world, the assimilation of carbon dioxide, photosynthesis, respiration, and fermentation. Students will learn about proper laboratory practices, careful observation, and scientific methodology. They will learn about functional groups as well as reactants and products in chemical equations. Students conduct and document laboratory experiments and observations, have quizzes and a final exam. This work along with diagrams from learning will be combined into a morning lesson book due at the end of the block.

Tenth Grade—Inorganic Chemistry

In this morning lesson block, which meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for four weeks, students study chemistry experimentally and theoretically, beginning with precipitation and solubility of ions. They characterize salts and crystals, and study acids and bases through reactions, qualitative indicators, and quantitative titrations. Next they study the biological significance of solutions and then organic compounds, which includes the nitrogen cycle. Students also learn the mathematical calculations of concentration, polarity, and chemical equations. Proper laboratory practices, observational skills, recording techniques, and collaborative work are all important components of the course. Students combine their laboratory work, writing projects, and artistic presentation of material into their morning lesson book. Quizzes and a final exam are also a part of the course.

Eleventh Grade—Historical Exploration

This morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for three weeks. It explores chemistry through theory and experimentation. Students trace the historical development of chemistry from the Greeks through alchemy to atomic theory, with reference to scientific method. Through experimentation, the class explores the ability of elements to combine and transform physically. Through phenomena and inquiry, they explore 12 elements in the human body and the role they play in the universe. The course includes a look at the development of the periodic table from Newland’s octaves to Mendeleyev.

Twelfth Grade—Biochemistry

The biochemistry morning lesson block meets 1 hour/50 minutes daily for four weeks. This culmination class gives twelfth graders an opportunity to overview the chemical universe both in terms of historical development and contemporary theories. Included is a view of the global effects of chemical technology (economic, social, and environmental) and the effects of chemical substances on the human organism. Using atomic theory as well as experimental exploration, students discuss proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as the physical forces that interact with the compounds. Students learn more about DNA’s ability to synthesize molecules for living organisms. They also discuss biotechnology and genetically determined disease, as well as the ethical considerations these technologies bring to our society.

Earth Sciences

Ninth Grade—Geology

This course emphasizes a survey of geologic, hydrologic, and atmospheric systems whose processes define and influence the Earth’s landforms. Specific topics include geomorphology and the dynamic structure of the Earth, including volcanoes, glaciers, earthquakes, and erosion, as well as hydrology (and, time allowing, meteorology and climate). In lab, students investigate mineralogy, rock types, and crustal interactions (tectonics) and map reading. In the field, students study the geology of the Sierra Nevada and river landforms.

Ninth Grade—Agriculture Trip

Every autumn the ninth graders spend a week at a biodynamic farm, working and taking classes. They stay in tents, cook their food, forego showers, and spend at least 6 hours a day doing farm work. Their supervisors are trained apprentices who explain biodynamic processes and work with them as they compost, collect and save seeds, clean out and prepare seed beds, harvest, plant, and care for the animals. The classes with a master farmer bring them to a greater understanding of the interdependency of the plants and animals on the farm and the circular nature of the contributions they make to one another. Students also learn about different kinds of agriculture: pesticide-driven, organic, and biodynamic.